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Galaxy M-100
Courtesy AURA/STScI, NASA contract NAS5-26555
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Galaxy M-100 Courtesy AURA/STScI, NASA contract NAS5-26555 |
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Dynamics of Galaxies Home: Cats
The galaxy depicted above is classified as a barred-spiral type. About 78 percent of galaxies are of the spiral type, and one quarter of them have spirals that begin from the center with a short straight bar segment. Those galaxies in which the spiral structure is not apparent are called elliptical which is actually a misnomer because if viewed head-on they are circular, these account for 18 percent, and the remaining 4 percent are designated as irregular. Current cosmology has no definitive answers regarding the genesis of galaxies.
Because the form of galaxies is determined by the dynamic balance between the gravitational and inertial forces, it is in principle possible to determine the mass distribution from the shape of a galaxy. From the pictures is apparent that the mass density decreases toward the periphery. This means that the gravitational force also becomes weaker with the distance from the center, which in turn requires that the stars in the outer parts of the galaxy move slower than those near the center. Therefore, with time, the arms are progressively winding up. Consequently, it can be concluded that, at some time in the past, the two arms must have protruded in a straight line. Furthermore, since the arms in different galaxies are wound up to a different extent, it follows that they have been created at different times. It has also been determined that the elliptical galaxies contain older stars than those found in spiral galaxies. This implies that the elliptical form merely represents a spiral galaxy whose arms have completely wound up. If this is the case, then there exists a consistent cycle in the life of galaxies.
Under this assumption, a rudimentary computational simulation gives the results shown below:
| Since there exist galaxies whose arms have less than a
single turn, it follows that they must have been formed relatively
recently. The amount of winding up depends on the difference between
the rotational speed of the inner and outer parts of the galaxy. It is known that our own galaxy, the Milky Way,
turns once in about 200 million years, and since its arms are still
discernible to the extent permitted by the view within the arm, it could not have been formed soon after the time of
the supposed "Big Bang", some 15 billion years ago. Recently
were also observed very powerful explosive events at various distances in
the observable universe. These facts lead to the plausible conclusion that
galaxies may be continuously formed and destroyed.
A typical galaxy, like our Milky Way, whose diameter is about 100,000 light-years (0.946 x10^21 m) contains some 100 to 200 billion stars like our sun. A valid question regards the galaxy size limit. According to the present views, gravity, whose genesis has not been explained earlier, decreases with the square of the distance, which does not limit the size of galaxies. Also, in currently fashionable gravitation theories it is assumed that gravity propagates with the speed of light, but, as already determined by Laplace, this is erroneous. All of these, and other unresolved issues can be conceptually solved if it is assumed that the universe is filled with a fundamental substance, called aether. In addition to these compelling reasons, the ancient thinkers came to the same conclusion through reasoning. Thus, let us investigate what properties the aether must have to produce the observed physical reality. |
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Present physical theories are based on numerous postulates for such things as forces, momenta, energy, mass, charge, etc., which are not defined in terms of comprehensible concepts. For example, a force that causes attraction through empty space is clearly impossible to comprehend. Although one can obtain some useful results by manipulating mathematical expressions based on such postulates, this approach has neither yielded progress in philosophy, nor has it enabled further progress in practice. Common sense tells us that, to investigate something effectively, we should know what we are dealing with. As I describe in my book, the ancient Greeks have delineated the basic questions, but they failed to develop the required mathematics, and have not performed the necessary experiments to verify their hypotheses before their civilization collapsed. Nevertheless, the Greek philosophers came to the correct conclusion that there exists a fundamental substance which must be atomistic. This means that the ultimate constituent parts of this substance must not be further divisible. Furthermore, since the observed physical reality is changing, these fundamental entities, which they called atomos, must be in perpetual motion. The issue that was not effectively resolved regards the shape and size of these 'atoms' (gyrons).
With the advances in experimental techniques and mathematics we can now begin to resolve this remaining issue. Since Dalton inappropriately utilized the Greek terminology I decided to call the fundamental entities gyrons. It turns out that the gyrons can all be identical, and that the observed physical variety can be produced through the variations in their motion. Thus, only their size and form must be specified. Since gyrons are the ultimate material entities, it is not possible to investigate them directly by experimental means. Therefore, one must make a plausible hypothesis, and then employ mathematics to relate the collective motion of gyrons to the observable phenomena on a larger scale. Experimental and theoretical considerations lead us to the conclusion that aether must be an anisotropic gas, which requires that the gyrons are non-spherical. Further considerations indicate that the gyrons have likely the form depicted below.
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Each gyron moves in a straight line while at the same time rotating around its center. These gyrons, colliding with each other, comprise the gas called aether. |
Gyrons are very small on our scale, their length probably corresponds to the Planck length, which is 1.6 x10^-35 m. In comparison, the diameter of a proton is 1.5 x10^-15 m. The gyrons are spread throughout the universe, and the majority of them are undergoing random collisions with each other. In this condition they are comprising what we call the vacuum. Thus, vacuum is not empty, it contains the random moving gyrons whose motion represents the potential energy. The average gyron speed corresponds to the speed of light, while some of them move slower, and some faster.
Like in material substances, if the equilibrium condition is disturbed, waves can propagate in the aether. The most commonly observed aether waves are called electromagnetic waves, to which belongs light. In these waves the gyrons move as a group in a non-random spiral pattern which is called a photon. The intensity of light depends on the number of photons moving together. If the spiral trajectories of the participating photons move in unison, then the light is termed coherent. Coherent light is generated in lasers, while incoherent light comes from the sun and common illumination.
As in material fluids, there can also exist vortices in the aether. In an aether vortex the gyrons move non-randomly in a closed circular pattern. The simplest aether vortex is called electron. Since there are possible only right-handed, and left-handed rotations, we have also only two kinds of electrical charge. The charge is conserved because the rotation in the vortex is conserved. However, if a right-handed, and a left-handed vortex meet, the rotation cancels, and charge disappears. This is termed annihilation of matter with anti-matter. The disturbance associated with such an event causes the generation of photons. The images below show the organized trajectories of gyrons manifested as photons, and electrons.
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| The above plots show the trajectories of gyrons in photons,
one with right-handed polarization, and the other with left-handed
polarization. The darkness of the lines indicates the concentration of
gyrons participating in these wave packets. The organized motion of gyrons in the aether causes a pressure drop within the photon. Therefore high energy photons, in which more gyrons participate in the organized motion, are smaller. With the rotational motion in the spiral is associated centrifugal acceleration of gyrons, which is manifested as the transverse electromagnetic field. The equations relating the various parameters are presented in my other web-site: http://www.neuronet.pitt.edu/~meno/ and below in the EXPERT section. The photon has a remarkably simple dynamic structure, and its wavelength is equal to its circumference, so that l = p*diameter. The organized group moves with the speed of light, but individual gyrons move faster by the factor of square root of two. This model accounts for all the experimentally verified properties of electromagnetic radiation. |
These plots depict the orbital trajectories of gyrons
comprising the vortices in the aether that we call electrons. The
right-handed, and left-handed rotations correspond to the positron and
negatron, which represent the two electrical charge units. All the
surrounding space is filled with randomly moving gyrons, comprising the
vacuum. As an analogy, the vacuum corresponds to still air, and
electrons to tornadoes. The orbital speed of gyrons on the surface of these toroidal vortices is equal to the speed of light, but internally the speed increases, and approaches infinity at the center. However, the density of gyrons at the center is zero, so that no physical singularity is encountered. The electric and magnetic fields are produced by the radial acceleration of gyrons and vorticity, while the gravitational field is the result of aether drift into these vortices. To maintain the necessary balance, an equal number of gyrons is ejected longitudinally with very high speed. This model is thus in agreement with the requirement that gravitational interaction exceeds the speed of light, as determined by Laplace. |
All material structures are considered to be various assemblies of the basic electron vortices. Protons are probably assemblies of electrons in a manner resembling hurricanes which can contain many tornadoes. Of course, the analogy is only marginally valid because the atmospheric vortices are axial, while the stable aether vortices are toroidal. In addition to this, air is essentially an isotropic fluid, while aether is anisotropic, thus supporting more involved dynamic structures.
In this sense, electron-type vortices can assemble to produce mesons, which in turn assemble to produce protons and neutrons. The latter then assemble in nuclear structures to produce the various isotopes within the periodic system of elements. These nuclear structures are in turn orbited by electron vortices. This dynamic behavior is based on the interplay between the angular and linear motion of gyrons in various stable dynamic arrangements. On a larger scale we have similar behavior in the planetary systems, and eventually in galaxies. All these phenomena can already be qualitatively accounted for by this model. However, the quantitative aspects are quite involved, and will require the development of suitable mathematical tools.
My model of physical reality does not require introducing any dogmatic concepts, it is based purely on geometrical and kinematic relationships in the familiar three-dimensional space. This is what the ancient Greek philosophers were striving for. Later it was eloquently stated by Descartes: Give me extension and motion, and I will construct the universe. Descartes lacked the necessary mathematical tools, especially calculus, which was soon thereafter introduced by Newton. Newton's work, with subsequent contributions by Euler, Faraday, and Maxwell, enabled me to fully account for the electromagnetic phenomena, while gravity and nuclear structures require additional development.
Without going into advanced mathematics, a rudimentary outline of the basic formulation of my theory in quantitative terms may be helpful. As stated above, we begin with the hypothesis that the void space in the universe is partly filled with gyrons in perpetual motion. When collisions occur, the motion can be transferred from one gyron to the next, but the combined motion is never reduced.
The first useful quantity is the ratio between the occupied and unoccupied space, corresponding to the ratio of the volume occupied by the gyrons, and the remaining void space. It is clear that the greater the gyron density, the more collisions will take place per unit of time, and hence, the pressure in the aether will be higher there. It turns out that what is termed potential, is proportional to the gyron density and the square of their average speed.
The volume occupation ratio g, is mathematically defined as
g = volume of space occupied by the gyrons located in a unit volume / (unit volume - volume of gyrons),
where (unit volume - volume of gyrons) represents the void space per unit of space volume. Thus,
g = Vg / (vol-Vg)
Since this simple parameter plays a central role in the description of electromagnetic phenomena, it is worth elaborating on it. Note that if the universe were a mere void space, then Vg would be zero, and so would g. In the opposite extreme, if the universe were completely filled with gyrons, then vol = Vg, and g would be infinite. Since gyrons are completely incompressible, the parameter g in essence measures the stiffness of the aether substance. Its inverse 1/g, is then a measure for compressibility of the aether gas. Since the void space is relatively sparsely populated with gyrons, aether is in principle a highly compressible fluid, but since nothing else exists to contain it, no direct experimentation is possible.
By multiplying g with the square of the speed of light, corresponding to the average speed of gyrons, we obtain what is termed electrical potential V, commonly called voltage.
V = (go -g )c^2
Thus, the voltage difference between two places in space is proportional to the difference in gyron population between the two places in space with gyron densities go and g .
What is called electrical charge can be expressed in units of q = a c^2, where a stands for the length of the gyron. Consequently, since energy has the units of potential multiplied by charge w = qV, it follows that, in fundamental parameters, energy is expressed in units of w = a g c^4.
In a similar manner, all other quantities, utilized in physics, can be expressed merely in terms of length and speed, which are the units for the phenomena Descartes was talking about, namely extension, and motion. The measuring unit for time is length divided by speed, or in particular t = a / c. Absolute time is of course passing, but our measurement of it depends on the speed with which the gyrons are moving at a particular location.
The observed physical reality, including the sharks below, is nothing more than an intricate choreography of gyrons.
These, and various other issues are elaborated in my book. The point I am making is that no incomprehensible and bizarre concepts are needed to describe nature.
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Toward the end of the 19th century, physics encountered a roadblock. At that time it was believed that the observed matter has its own existence, while being embedded in the aether. Since this is not the case, the experiments to determine the existence of an aether failed. This prompted Albert Einstein to introduce the theory of relativity which is based on a dogmatic proclamation that the speed of light is constant regardless of the motion with which the measuring apparatus moves through space. Einstein's assumption excludes the existence of an aether, but it can mathematically describe the observed situation. By eliminating the medium in which the electromagnetic waves propagate, Einstein faced the dilemma to account for the observed wave phenomena associated with light and the rest of electromagnetic radiation. Hence, he introduced the bizarre "wave-particle duality" concept, which is still taught in schools.
Although this concept is physically irrational, the physics establishment latched on to it and refuses to change its position in spite of the fact that the issue regarding the existence of the aether has been resolved by assuming that matter does not exist on its own, but is merely a dynamic state (vortices) in the aether.
I cannot prognosticate how long this situation will last, but it is clear that no progress can be made unless the concept of the aether is reintroduced, and research becomes based on that premise.
A number of difficulties must be removed before this situation can be reversed. The major obstacle is the current socio-economic dynamics in which the physics establishment, controlling education and research, is supported through political means. This hampers a change for two reasons: the academic leadership is not eager to change a lucrative situation, and the students are indoctrinated to follow the tradition and prolong the status-quo.
Somewhere out there in the aether, those who are interested in understanding the physical reality, and are able to shake off the indoctrination, plus have the luxury not to depend on the establishment, are invited to contact me, because it would be useful to establish communication and a publication dedicated to this subject. meno@gyrons.net
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